Author: Aamarpali

In Concept Research Foundation we will not only invite talented researchers to share their ideas and works with us, but we will also try to inculcate a sense of research among the young generation who can give us a tomorrow that will be better than any other yesterday that has ever come to this world. At the initial phase we are inviting articles on any discipline and of any length to be published in this blog of the Concept Research Foundation. Please feel free to contact me at conceptresearchfoundation@gmail.com for any query or sending articles that you would like to publish in this blog of the Concept Research Foundation. Thanking you and looking for your everlasting support.

RHEOLOGY

Posted on by Aamarpali

By: Aamarpali Puri

Websters define rheology as “the study of the change in form and flow of matter, embracing elasticity, viscosity and plasticity. The word rheology in the most literal sense means the study of flow. However, one may extend the concept of flow of a material to include the idea of any change in its shape, under the action of an agency, which is not instantaneous, and which is not recoverable. The ideal solids deform easily and when the stress is removed, the energy of deformation is fully recovered. The energy of deformation arises from internal friction of the fluid otherwise known as viscosity. In dealing with industrial fluids, perhaps raw materials or manufactured products, introducing viscosity as a single physical constant is not sufficient to make accurate predictions of real flow behavior. This is due to the fact that in many cases a single parameter is not sufficient to describe the fluids flow behavior or rheology. Where a simple coefficient of viscosity is sufficient the flow behavior is referred to as Newtonian. Unfortunately many everyday fluids are non-Newtonian, for example Paints, salad cream, wall paste, printing ink, etc. For studying the rheology of these we need to know shear stress, shear rate, torque and apparent viscosity. A frequent application of the measurement of rheological properties can be found in the area of quality control, where raw materials are consistent. Broadfoot (Broadfoot and Miller, 1990) studied the rheological behavior of massecuites and molasses from Australian sugar factories and found them to pseudoplastic characteristic but their viscosity values varied, as did their composition. Molasses (Kaur, Kaler and Aamarpali, 2002) in the presence of starch exhibited pseudoplastic behavior and the shear stress shear rate relationship obeyed the power law model. Capillary rheometer ((Nguyen, Geiger and Fritz, 20002) was used for rheological characterization of thermo tropic liquid crystalline polymer. Vane geometry is used as an efficient rheometric measurement system for determining the Newtonian, non-Newtonian and viscoelastic properties of complex fluids. Rodrigue (Rodrigue, 2002) made use of its generalized models to take into account the shear-thinning character of the fluids via the simple power-law viscosity model for inelastic non-Newtonian fluids. One of the instrument is ABEMAT refractometer for analysis of brix of the Fluid. See Figure.
The direct assessment of process ability is the principal objective of the flow behavior studies. The flow behavior is an indirect measure of the product consistency and quality. The rheological studies provide information on how to best control the flow properties of the product so that the desired end product can be prepared and contribute also to a better understanding the underlying mechanism of momentum and heat transfer process.

References:
1. Broadfoot, R and Miller, K.F. (1990). “Rheological studies of massecuites and molasses”. Int. Sug. J., 92 {1098} 107-115.
2. Kaur, S.; Kaler, R.S.S and Aamarpali. (2002). “Effect of starch on the rheology of molasses”. J. Food. Eng. (U.K), 55, 319-322.
3. Nguyen, T.N.; Geiger, K and Fritz, H.G. (2002). “Rheological properties and shear induced texture development of thermo tropic liquid crystalline polymer melts”. Appl. Rheol., 12, 142-150.
4. Rodrigue, D. (2002). “A simple correlation for gas bubbles rising in Power-Law fluids”. Can. J. Chem. Eng., 80, 289-292.

8 Ways to Improve Your Sales Skills

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By: Anamitra Roy

“Don’t find customers for your products, find products for your customers.”

Seth Godin

Trust me; there was a point of time in my life when I used to hate the word “Sales”. I was a student of finance. I had done my post graduation in finance and accounting. I was working in the operations department of an institute where I was mainly looking after the financial operations. But there are certain things that are destined to happen. A career in sales and marketing was perhaps something like this for me. I was pursuing a 2 year management program in TASMAC B- School. At the beginning of the program I was sure, in fact, I knew that I will opt for finance specialization. There was nothing else in this world for which I would have opted. But I was convinced by the course coordinator and one of the best persons whom I have ever met in my life, Professor Subhajit Chatterjee, to go for marketing. Professor Chatterjee always had more faith in my abilities than I ever had. He always believed that I was born to take up marketing and sales as an integral part of my life. I was stubborn and rigid enough to not listen to anyone or get convinced by anyone. But certain things as I told you are destined to happen. I just took up marketing as my area of specialization. There was a complete change that I begun to experience since then. But still, I was not comfortable with the word “Sales”, as if it was something bad.

It was during one of those long and absorbing classes during specialization that something happened. It was a “Brand Management and Promotion Strategies” class. I was asked a question by Professor Monalisa Dey. She asked me about the institute where I was working. I was describing to her about our span of operations and sales strategies. But during this conversation I fumbled. I apologized to the professor for using the word “Sales” while talking about the way we used to get the students admitted to various IT courses being conducted in the institute. The professor smiled and got me rectified. She said, I still remember, that as a student who has opted for marketing major, I should feel proud to use the word “Sales”. She said, “After all it is not wrong to sell.” The world changed in front of me. A fraction of a second later I was not the same person that I used to be. I was proud to be a student of marketing. I was happy and comfortable to utter the word “Sales” as many times as was required. And sometimes quite unnecessarily, just to prove in front of others that I was proud to be a student of marketing, actually marketing and sales management.

Since then I went ahead with a career in marketing. I met a lot of people, attended seminars and other management programs on marketing. I learnt a few fundamental facts about sales which I am sharing with you all. My intentions are simple. I took five years to learn these. When you go through this article and learn these fundamental facts within the next half an hour, I will consider my job done. I will consider that I have been able to contribute towards the progress of education and the civilization.

On that note, those fundamental facts about sales are as follows:

1. Gather Information about the Prospective Buyer:

It is always better to gather information about the prospective buyer. Try and understand his social and cultural background. Communicate to him to learn about him. Show interest about the buyer, his life, his interests and disinterests. The great, Dale Carnegie always use to opine that you will earn more friends from out of strangers by showing interest about him rather trying to get him interested about your product.

Your interest about the prospective buyer will help him to open up in front of you. When you have a person with an open mind, your job gets doubly easier. You are getting closer to that person. Gradually a time will come when you will have no barriers in front of you. You have all the information about your prospective customer.

In this context, let me share something that I learnt from one of my bosses. The whole world knows him as a great sports administrator. He actually is one. He is the Senior Vice President of the All India Football Federation and the President of the Indian Football Association. But I know him as Director: Finance of The George Telegraph Group. My boss at The George Telegraph Training Institute which happens to be one of the oldest, largest, professionally managed and best vocational training institutes in the world. I am talking about Mr. Subrata Dutta. During my tenure as a part of his team managing the franchisee business in this institute, I have always seen Mr. Dutta talking in business meetings about gathering information about the prospective customer. The George Telegraph Training Institute has a wide repertoire of vocational courses. As a sales personnel you would be in a fix if you do not have knowledge about your would – be – customer sitting in front of you. Mr. Dutta in his business meetings and in house training sessions always focuses on gathering knowledge about the prospective customer. He believes that the most difficult part of your job is selection of what you are going to offer your customer. When you have knowledge about him, you know what he likes and dislikes, you have no problem in selection of what to offer him.

The ultimate conclusion is that knowing your prospective customer is the first and probably the most important step to selling.

“Each person you meet is a lesson to be learnt.”

Bryant McGill

2. Analyze the Needs of the Customer:  

Psychology varies from man to man. There may be two men doing the same thing but not with the same intentions. This idea can also be used to understand the buying patterns of buyers. Let us take the example of computers. A man may be buying a computer so that his son can play games in it. Again, another man may be buying a computer from the same shop at the same point of time for his new office. The actions are the same in these two cases but the intentions are different.

Analyzing the needs of the customers is extremely important. This is because on the nature of the needs you can highlight the features which will attract the customers towards the commodity that you are trying to sell him/ her.

“Needs can never be replaced; wants get replaced.”

Umair Naeem

3. Get into the mind without letting the customer know that:

When you try to get in to the minds of a person, by a natural process the mind shuts down. As if, it starts to challenge you. It won’t allow you to enter. This is an experience that every sales person has to encounter at some point of life. You have depicted how fantastic the gadget is, you have told how it can be used to reap maximum benefits and then you did that mistake. You started talking about the sale price and discount offers. The mind of the customer developed a repulsive force. It told itself let me check out how smart this guy is. I will not allow an entry inside me. Let me see if this guy is intelligent enough to still get into me and sell this gadget to me. There is a repulsive force that starts to work in the mind of the customer.

This is the point in the sales process when you begin to face the stiffest challenge as a salesperson. To tell you the truth if you can win this challenge, then you are near to being perhaps the best salesman in the world.

There is actually no science that can tell you how to win this battle. But of course there is a way to get rid of this problem.

Try to get into the mind of the prospective customer without letting him know. Let me give you a simple example. Suppose you are running a boutique. There is a wide range of men’s top at your boutique. A customer walks in and tells you that he wants to buy a men’s top. What would be your approach to him? Just talk to him. Begin by saying hello and then carry on talking to him. You can carry on talking to him about everything in this world. But let there be no silence. Whoever said that silence is golden must not have been a salesman. Talk to him. In between your conversation manage to tell him how fantastic he looks in what he is wearing … probably blue denim and a red shirt. He is probably feeling shy, probably starting to open up to you. This is the time for which you worked for so long. This is the time for which you went on to speak so many non sense things for the last five/ ten minutes. Pitch your product. Tell that man that you a have a yellow men’s top in which he will look even more gorgeous. Stop there. You have done your job. You have got into the mind of your customer. You are making an effort to sell him what you intended to but he does not know that. You have got into the mind of that man without letting him know.

The best and the only way to sell something are to get into the minds of your prospective customer without letting him know that. You have inspired the mind of your prospective customer.

“Education means inspiring someone’s mind, not just filling their head.”

Katie Lusk

4. Don’t sell features, sell advantages/ benefits:

Suppose you are running a showroom that deals in electronics products. A man walks in. He wants to purchase a computer so that his son can play games in it. As a salesperson you can tell him that the computer that you will show him will not cause any harm to the eyes of his little son. The screen of that computer has an anti reflector in it. His son can go on for hours playing games in it.On that same day suppose, a man walks in who wants to purchase a computer for his new office. You can tell him that the computer you will show him has a large memory. So he can store all the data of his office in that. Moreover, the process of taking a back up of the data in that computer is really simple. So he doesn’t need to worry about the loss of his data.Now if you are doing the reverse, then my friend, you may have a great life but that cannot be achieved through a career in sales … perhaps through something else.

So it is extremely important to understand your customers and their needs as stated in the earlier portion of this writing. It is then that you can pitch your product accordingly.The football in the question which is the best in the world in terms of quality has no advantage/ benefit for a person with polio. Even if it is the best in the world that man will not purchase it.

Initially I asked you that can you sell a football to a man who has polio. Now I am modifying the question. Think about selling the world’s best quality football to a man who has polio. Still your answer has to be a big no. Do you know why? It is because you cannot sell features. Only advantages/ benefits can be sold. Well, when you say no to this question you indirectly highlight on a fundamental fact about sales. Let me expand on what I am trying to say.

Have you ever given a thought to selling a football to a man who has polio or selling an audio CD to a man who is deaf? I know the answer is obviously a big no. How can you do that?

“Write injuries in dust, your benefits in marble.”

Benjamin Franklin

5. Focus on after – sales services:

I have personally seen that after receiving the after – sales services, customers get ready to give you a few morereferences. Thus, after – sales services can at times be used to generate more business. As a sales person you cannot come out of your relation with the customer immediately when the sale gets over. It is so because you are just not selling the product to the customer but you are also representing the entire organization to the customer. The customer does not know your MD, CEO, Directors or any other high flying executive of the organization. Let me in fact; put it this way that the customer does not need to know about the greatness of your organization. He just knows you. So if the customer has some problems after the sale is over then also it is your responsibility to help him/ her. You are the sole representative of the entire organization in front of the customer. You need to stay in touch with him and help him get the after -sales services whenever required and from where ever required.

“After – sales service is more important than assistance before sales. It is through such services that one gets permanent customers.”

Konosuke Matsushita

6. Sales is a process, it is not a destination:
So management of frustration is one of the biggest challenges for any sales person. You know that you have done everything perfectly but still after the tenth meeting if the client tells you that he needs more time to think about the deal you tend to get frustrated. It is natural. It happens to the persons with the coolest of the heads in the world. So do not bother too much about that. Just pick yourself up, if not spiritually, just physically. Go and meet the client again. Just carry on. Do not expect returns. Just carry on doing what you are supposed to do. Remember that sale is a process, it is not a destination.I have seen my dad, a MBA from IISWBM, Kolkata and an executive officer of Union Carbide for more than thirty five years; expect direct returns after paying off taxes. But the tragedy of life is that there cannot be any direct returns from taxes. A tax is defined as that amount paid to the government without any expectation of direct returns. When we do something we always expect a return from it. This is a basic psychology of any human being. There is no problem in expecting something as a return. The problem arises when that return does not come or the quantum of the return is not proportional to your expectations. This is the point from where the question of frustration management comes.

“I can’t change the direction of the wind, but I can adjust my sails to always reach my destination.”

Jimmy Dean.

7. Customer Relationship Management (CRM): 

Maintain a database of your clients, their likings and disliking. Interact with them even after the sales process is over. If possible, please talk to them on a periodical basis. This will help you to develop a bond with your customers. Even when you leave your current organization and switch on to another one, you will always be surrounded with a pool of loyal customers. In other words remain involved with your customer.

“Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn.”

Benjamin Frankli

8. Develop Pride:

This is perhaps the most important fundamental fact about sales that will enable you to excel in this field. Tell yourself that you are in the oldest profession of the world and there cannot be any profession better than this. Tell yourself that whichever profession you are; ultimately it is linked to sales. An accountant sells his accounting knowledge and skills. A medical surgeon sells his surgical skills. A physician sells his knowledge on physiology. A politician sells his dreams of making the nation. Excavators, a goldsmith, a gem cutter, a professor, a teacher … all of them are selling something. So you are in the most important profession of the world. In this profession you just do not need to be an expert on your profession. You have to be an expert on psychology so that you can understand your customer. You have to be physically fit so that you can carry on with your strenuous job. You have to be patient, perseverant, mentally strong, and charming, a good communicator, an actor, a teacher, a preacher. With so many qualities in one packet how can you be an ordinary man? You are a miracle. You are the next big thing to happen where you are. Develop pride for yourself and your profession. Start thinking that you are a champion, a winner of life.

Trust me, if you develop pride for yourself and your profession of sales, you will never have to work in your life … not for a single day. You will be gifted with the longest vacation in the world. You will enjoy your profession so much that you will never feel that you are working. You will always feel like you are holidaying. You will feel motivated. You will feel contented. You will feel happy. You will feel safe and secured. What more do you want in your life …

“Take pride in how far you have come. Have faith in how far you can go.”

Unknown

I have personally seen in my life that there is a tremendous joy that you can feel when you have sold the product to a customer and reached a step closer to your sales target. Tell yourself that this joy exists and it is your right to feel it, enjoy it after every sales deal that you close. It is this joy that you need to feel in order to be a successful sales person. I had seen the excitements in sales people around me when they have been able to close a deal. Why don’t you try to do it? Get a deal closed. Advance towards your magic figure … I mean the target. Feel safe and then the enjoyment is all yours. You are in the oldest and best profession of the world. You are a miracle. The whole world is watching you. When you close a sales deal you do not do everything for yourself. You also contribute towards the art and science of sales. You know why? Because you are a miracle. That’s why; the world of sales has embraced you.

“Best way to sell something: don’t sell anything. Earn the awareness, respect and trust of those who might buy.”

Rand Fishkin

REDEFINING ADMISSION CRIETERIA

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By Shaifali Rachna Puri

INDIA

  • ACADEMIC RECORD (Marks in qualifying degrees)
  • ACADEMIC RECORD (Marks in Higher Degrees )
  • ACADEMIC RECORD (Marks in entrance examination)
General Overview
  • Qualifications for entry into a teacher education program vary considerably, and most countries have multiple entry points into the field of teaching. Entry varies by type of preparing institution and by the school level for which candidates plan to teach–elementary (primary) or secondary.
  • Examinations are common to determine candidates’ readiness and capacity for teacher education programs. In Germany, candidates must take both oral and written exams. In the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, all secondary graduates must take a national exam
  • In countries where there are no national exams, teacher preparation institutions set their own criteria for admission, such as in France, New Zealand, Canada, and Japan.
  • Candidates’ academic achievement is most often assessed through grades and test scores. Also assessment of language and communication skills through conduct of interviews is done and consideration is given to the aptitude for the profession  .

CANADA

Academics Applicants must present an average of 70%, based on the last 10 credits or equivalent (10 full year courses or 20 semester courses equivalent to 60 credit hours) in an undergraduate degree program

Profile of Experience Applicants are asked to list all teaching-related experiences, and critically reflect upon three of those experiences.

References Referees must respond to the question; “In your opinion, why do you believe the applicant would be an effective educator?”

Curriculum-related (Primary-Junior) and Teaching Subject (Intermediate-Senior) Intermediate-Senior applicants are required to provide evidence of expertise in two teaching subject areas. In order to be eligible for entry, applicants must have 5 full credits in their first teaching subject and 3 full credits in their second teaching subject.

Proficiency in English an applicant whose primary language is not English, or whose previous education has been conducted in another language, must demonstrate a command of English sufficient to meet the demands of classroom instruction, written assignments, and participation in tutorials and discussions.

UNITED KINGDOM

Entry to the course leading to a Teaching Qualification (Secondary Education), which is awarded in a named subject or subjects, requires:

  • A degree of a United Kingdom University in which the candidate has sufficient breadth and depth of study for teaching the subject in secondary schools.
  • A pass in English at Higher level or an equivalent qualification, is also necessary.
  • Those intending to teach a modern foreign language must also satisfy the training institutions of their oral proficiency in the language: they are required to have spent a period of residence in a country in which the language is spoken.
AUSTRALIA

Initial consideration for admission to the ATTP (Accelerated Teacher Training Program) is based on the assessment of candidate’s qualifications and industry experience( at least three years related industry experience within the last five years). Suitable applicants are invited to the next stage of the selection process, which includes an interview. The interview will include exploration of   ideas of the candidate on and suitability for teaching.

IRAN

Upper secondary school teachers are trained at teacher-training colleges and at universities.  Admission to these programs is based on the academic record of the candidate and a special entrance examination. Candidates planning to teach in either the academic or the technical tracks must have a karshenasi (a basic training programme for teacher education) or its equivalent.

CHINA

Candidates for teacher-training programs must complete the equivalent of at least three full semesters of college-level liberal arts courses with a B average before enrolling in a teacher-training program

The prospective teacher must maintain at least a B average in the subject area he or she intends to teach.

Education students will acquire classroom experience at the very beginning of their training. This will give them a sense of whether they have the commitment and temperament for teaching and they’ll continue accordingly in the field of education

SOUTH AFRICA

The Bachelor’s degree with a program of study in  Education is primarily aimed at preparing professionals with relevant experience in educational field settings.

Candidates should show evidence of commitment to creative and innovative activities such as independent study, research projects, educational materials development

Ability to interact with cultures or groups other than one’s own.

Ability to do quality graduate work.

Strong English ability; fluency in a language other than English.

CONCLUSION

  • In most of the countries cited above, the admission criteria does not rely only on the academic qualifications of the candidate.
  • The admission to the teacher training course is done with a view point of preparing teachers psychologically fit into the profession
  • There is scope for all round development of the teacher
STEPS NEEDED
  • Consideration of the personality on the whole
  • Emphasis on Quality instead of quantity
  • Development of a teacher, psychologically fit for profession
  • Subjective answer type questions.
  • Interview to judge the attitude and aptitude of the candidate

PHYSICAL EVIDENCES IN SERVICE INDUSTRIES

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Anamitra Roy

One of the uniqueness that services have is that they are intangible by nature. It is because of this uniqueness that customers and clients are always skeptical about the service that they are going to purchase because they cannot see it or experience it before purchasing. So service providing organizations from time to time aims at producing physical evidences that would make it easier for the customers to imagine the experiences they will gather and perceptions they will develop while purchasing the services.

Consider the case of a Chinese restaurant. Once we enter a Chinese restaurant we do not know how the food will be until we actually order and have it. But we can always develop some idea about the quality of the food that will be served to us from the internal decor, health and hygiene conditions being maintained inside the restaurant, the aroma of the food, the faces of the other customers having food there etc.

A discussion on how such physical evidences can be grown is as follows:

1. Environment: Environment plays a key role in influencing the customer experiences and perceptions. Chinese restaurants are decorated with Chinese fans and fengshui artifacts like the laughing Buddha and dragons to bring about a sense of China within the restaurant. For the same purpose, Indian restaurants in London are decorated with Indian handicrafts. This helps in the creation of physical evidences. The moment you enter one such place you know what to expect. Environment plays a vital role in all service sector units, particularly in the hotel and education industry.

2. Documentation:  Service providing organizations aim at documentation of the standard of their services in the form of leaflets, brochures etc. This is particularly common in the case of educational institutions. Here we can cite the example of the Indian IT training industry. The leading Indian IT training organizations like Computer Maintenance Corporation, NIIT, BRAINWARE do this to create a physical evidence of the standard of IT training that would be given to the students. For this, these organizations have a separate branding and creativity department whose duty is the designing of such leaflets; brochures etc. so that they can highlight the physical evidences and contribute in fetching business.

3. Training to Staffs: Well trained staffs are an asset of any organization. At times they help in providing physical evidence to the customers about the standard of the services being provided to clients. For example the Christian Keralite nurses are very competent in handling patients with humanity. These nurses are a source of physical evidence to the patients in the Apollo Hospitals in Chennai and in other parts of southern India. With training, their nursing skills get enhanced. Apollo Hospitals have recruited such nurses and trained them to advertise the physical evidence.

4. Interaction by the Staffs: Friendly interactions by the staffs at times act as a physical evidence in building the customer perceptions and experiences. This is particularly true for the retail industry. In a shopping mall customers interact with the staffs on a more regular basis than in any other industry. In Pantaloons, staffs are given special training on ways of interaction with customers. They are given training on communication and personality development so that they can greet customers warmly.

5. Highlighting of Experiences: The great experiences of the previous customers are at times highlighted to influence the perceptions and expected experiences. This is particularly common in the travel and tourism industry. The website of Kundu Special, a leading Kolkata (West Bengal, India) based tourism company, has a section where the views and positive experiences of regular customers are depicted. With the same objective, in all the study centres of the Sikkim Manipal University the experiences of the students who have already passed out are advertised along with their photographs.

6. Advertisements: Advertisements, propaganda schemes and PR activities can also at times act as sources of physical evidence that puts a profound impression on customer experiences and perceptions. It is always great to pose a happy picture of the organization. Take the example of the advertisements of Oreo biscuits. Ranvir Kapoor is seen making fun with his screen sister … a happy picture which motivates people to buy more of this biscuit. Cadbury’s Celebrations are another great example. Customers are made to think that a celebration would be incomplete without Cadbury.

7. Other Associations: Government recognition, ISO certification etc are other associations that can influence the customer minds. Also at times social recognition plays a role in this regard.

8. CSR: Adoption of a proper policy for corporate social responsibility (CSR) also helps to influence customer experiences and perceptions. For example people’s perceptions about TATA Steel are formed to a huge extent by the CSR activities of this company.

In conclusion it can be pointed out that building physical evidence is a challenge for any service enterprise. While making a plan for building physical evidence it has to be remembered that physical evidences are like pillars to the marketing strategy of a service selling organization. However, just building of such physical evidence will not serve any purpose if efforts are not given to maintain them. Maintenance of physical evidences is an even more difficult challenge for the marketing strategists.

About the author:

The author is a graduate of commerce from St. Xavier’s College (Kolkata), a holder of a diploma in financial accounting from CMC, a holder of a post graduate diploma in finance from HSIS India and undergone a management program in marketing called GPBL (eq. to MBA) from TASMAC B – School in association with the University of Wales (U.K.).

Professionally, he was involved with CMC Ltd, HARDSOFT Information Systems, The George Telegraph Training Institute and many others. With more than ten years of experience in the service industry, the author is an avid reader and a writer of many articles.

Sugarcane Plant

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By: Aamarpali Puri

Sugarcane (Saccharum) is a genus of between 6-37species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall grasses (family Poaceae, tribe Andropogoneae), native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Old world. They have stout, jointed fibrous stalks 2-6m tall and sap rich in sugar. All the species interbreed, and give the major commercial cultivars hybrids. Given below is the scientific classification and some species of sugarcane plant.

            Scientific classification

            Kingdom: Plantae

            Division: Magnoliophyta

            Class: Liliopsida

            Order: Cypserales

            Family: Poaceae

            Genus: Saccharum

Sugar cane is mainly composed of water, as well as a solid part, which is composed of fiber and soluble solids. The hard rind of the cane protects a softer fibrous center. The fibrous center serves as a reservoir for sugar as the cane ripens. Saccharose, fructose, glucose and other minor components such as: minerals, proteins, wax, fat and acids are among soluble solids present in sugarcane. The most important inorganic compounds within sugar cane juice are silica, potassium, sodium, lime, magnesium, iron, phosphorous, sodium acid and chlorine. The proportion of each component depends on the variety, soil type, agricultural management, age and weather factors etc. All of these factors may be altered during the growth process and makes it difficult to obtain a homogeneous product. Cane sugar, cane syrup, molasses, wax and alcohol are products of sugarcane.

Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of 60cm (24in) of annual rain. Sugarcane is propagated from cuttings, rather than from seed. Once planted, a stand of cane can be harvested several times; after each harvest, the new stalks come up, called rations. Usually, each successive harvest gives a lesser yield, and eventually the declining yields justify replanting. Sugarcane is harvested either by hand or mechanically.

By careful selection and breeding, sugar cane has become one of the most efficient converters of solar energy into food carbohydrates and fiber. It is able to convert as much as 2% of incident solar energy into biomass. The largest producers of sugar cane are Brazil, India, and China. Brazil is a major grower of sugar cane where it is used to produce sugar as well as to provide the alcohol used in making gasohol and biodiesel fuels. In India the maximum yield of sugarcane is obtained in Coimbattore. It is the only place in India where seed formation takes place in sugarcane.

Brief details of the manufacture of sugar from sugarcane:

Usually the sugar is obtained from the cane at mills located near centers of production. Sugar cane is the source of sugar in all tropical and subtropical countries of the world. In a sugar mill, sugarcane is washed, chopped and then shredded by revolving knives. The shredded cane is then repeatedly mixed with water and crushed between rollers: the collected juices contain 10-15%sucrose, while the remaining fibrous solids, called bagasse, are burnt for fuel. Bagasse makes a sugar mill more than self-sufficient in energy; the surplus bagasse can be used for animal feed, in paper manufacture, or burnt to generate electricity for the local power grid.

  • Extraction of juice
  • Purification or defecation of the juice
  • Evaporation of the juice to syrup point
  • Concentration and crystallization of the syrup
  • Curing or preparation of the crystals

After crystallization raw sugar is obtained, which is later refined in the sugar mills. The resulting white sugar is utilized for local consumption. The syrup is further concentrated under vacuum until it becomes supersaturated, and then seeded with crystalline sugar. Upon cooling, sugar crystallizes out of the syrup.

The clarified juice is then concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator to make a syrup about 60 wt% in sucrose.

The second operation is the coagulation of the albumen, and the separation of it with other impurities from the juice, which holds them in suspension or solution. The moment the juice is expelled from the cells of the canes, chemical inversion commences, and the sooner it is stopped the better it is. So the cane juice is next mixed with lime to adjust its pH at 7. This arrests sucrose’ s decay into glucose and fructose, and precipitates out some impurities. The mixture then sits, allowing the lime and other suspended solids to settle out. The juice is extracted from canes by squeezing them between rollers. Canes vary very much in respect of the quality and also as to the quantity of the juice they contain. The quantity of the juice is the test to which recourse must be had in judging the efficiency of the extraction, while the quality is the main factor, which is taken into account with regard to the results of subsequent manufacture.

Sucrose: The white stuff commonly known as sugar, is sucrose, a molecule composed of 12 atoms of carbon, 22 atoms of hydrogen, and 11 atoms of oxygen (C11H22O11). Sugar crystal is an orderly arrangement of sucrose molecules. Sucrose is actually two simpler sugar molecules stuck together: fructose and glucose. It is carbohydrate and is found naturally in sugarcane and sugar beets in abundance. Sucrose is the main carrier of energy from one part of the plant to another, in all plant life. In this way it fulfills a role in the plant similar to that of glucose in the animal.

Medicinal value of sugar:

Refined sugar has been pulled out as something close to poison charged with diabetes, teeth decay, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, yeast infections, hypoglycemia, obesity and hyperactivity etc but numerous scientific studies have time and again confirmed that consumption of sugar does not cause chronic diseases, such as obesity, diabetes, heart disease and hyperactivity, nor does it contribute to deficiency in the diet by displacing other more valuable nutrients. According to the American Dietetic Association (ADA) all foods have a place in a balance diet and having sugar in regular diet is okay, as long as one eats a healthful diet and balances the extra calories. Sucrose (sugar) is antidote, antiseptic, bactericide, cardio tonic, demulcent, diuretic, intoxicant, laxative, pectoral, piscicide, refrigerant and stomachic. It is folk remedy for arthritis, bedsores, boils, cancer, colds, cough, diarrhea, dysentery, eyes, fever, hiccups, inflammation, laryngitis, opacity, penis sores, skin sores, sore throat, spleen, tumors and wounds (Duke and Wain, 1981). It is used as a preservative for fruits and meats.

Sugarcane as foodstuff:

In most countries where sugarcane is cultivated, there are foodstuffs and popular dishes derived from it. On account of it’s standard crystal size, color and consistency sugar is considered best sweetener. It enhances flavor of bread. In jams, jellies it inhibits the growth of yeast and molds. It inhibits browning of canned fruits. Direct consumption of raw sugarcane cylinders or cubes, which are chewed to extract the juice and the bagasse, is spit out. Freshly extracted juice (garapa, guarab, guarapa or caldo de cana) by hand or electrically operated small mills, with a touch of lemon and ice, makes a delicious and very popular drink. Cane syrup contains lots of vitamins and minerals. It is laden with vital nutrients. It is free from harmful preservatives, flocculants, surfactants, bleaching agents and viscosity reducers. Molasses is used as a sweetener and also as syrup accompanying other foods, such as cheese. Rapadura, a candy made of flavored solid brown sugar in Brazil, which can be consumed in small hard blocks, or in pulverized from (flour), as an add-on to other desserts.

Bamboos – The Eco-Friendly Guardian

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By: Krishnakumar, V.G

Bamboos are big grasses coming under family Poaceae. It is a tall grass with hollow stem.  Bamboos are a group of grass having a large number of varieties and hence grouped as Bambusoideae. Bamboos are found everywhere, from seashore to icy mountains.  These plants are mainly found in Asia. Out of the 1500 species, half of these species are found in the Asian region. In India, 146 species are identified. Bamboos are found as wild growth in forest areas and also cultivated in homesteads for domestic purposes and industrial purposes. Bamboo is also known as poor man’s timber, green gold etc. In the pre historian periods, split bamboo was used for surgery especially for removing umbilical cord. It was used for coffin too. In short, bamboo was used from cradle to coffin.  September 17th is celebrated as World Bamboo Day.

 The Bamboo Plant

This grass has got a strong rhizome growing under the soil. It germinates from a tiny seed and looks like a tiny grass having a height of 5-7 cms. After gaining healthy growth, the underground stem, rhizome develops. New pair of shoots sprout from the rhizome which will have more height than the first one and the process goes on till big ones having the optimum height of that species develop. In most of the species, it will take a time span of 4 – 5 years for such big bamboos to develop. With the age of the plant, the rhizome also expands and big bamboos are generally found on the periphery of the rhizome.  Smallest bamboo is Raddiella vanessiae having a height of 2 cms found in French Guyana and the largest bamboo is Dendrocalamus giganteus, (giant bamboo) originated from Myanmar having a normal height of 40 metres. The life span of bamboos vary from 35 years (almost all species) to 150 years (yellow bamboo- Bambusa vulgaris). All the bamboo species are considered to be fast growing. Since these are monocots, adventitious root system anchors the plant to earth.

Each bamboo is termed as a culm and the group is termed clum.

Many of us grow lucky bamboo in our drawing room. Actually, the lucky bamboo Dracaena sanderiana is not true bamboo.

Flowering of Bamboos

Almost all species of bamboo flower once in a life time. That denotes the end of the clum’s life. The seeds of big sized bamboos ( Bambusa bamboos[katha bans], Dendrocalamus giganteus [mota bans] etc) will be very small like that of a paddy grain, while seeds of small sized bamboos ( Melacona baccifera [muli bans], Ochlandra travancorica [reeds] will be big like that of an arecanut. There are two types of flowering in bamboos, sporadic flowering when stray incidents of flowering occur in the area and gregarious flowering is the phenomenon when the entire population of that bamboo species flower. It can be noticed when the production of new shoots are stopped in the clum for 2 consecutive years.

Propagation of Bamboos

Bamboos are propagated through various means. Mainly the propagation is done through conventional method of germinating seeds. But there are various constraints for propagation through seeds as the bamboo plant flowers after 30-40 years. After the seedfall, the clum dies off. The seeds have a viability period of 3-6 months, if stored in normal conditions. It is a fact that the bamboo seed is highly nutritious and rodents are attracted when seed fall begin.  Thus a sizeable quantity of seeds would be lost through rodents and wash off through rains.  Hence, various vegetative propagation methods like layering, tissue culture etc. are used for propagating bamboos. Layering is a simple practice of covering the node with soil to induce root formation. After 30 days, when sufficient roots and new shoots are developed, that node can be severed without damaging the roots and shoots to plant.

Tissue culture method is a costly production procedure and is used only when production is needed in large quantities. In Assam, one such Tissue Culture laboratory is functioning under Hindustan Paper Corporation Ltd (Nagaon Paper Mill, Kagaj Nagar, Jagi road, Morigaon district). That laboratory was installed to meet the heavy demand of northeast after the gregarious flowering phenomenon in that area.

It is an interesting phenomenon that when the mother bamboo clum flowers, all of its offshootted plants wherever planted in the world will flower.

Maintenance of Bamboo Clum

Bamboo can be cultivated for domestic and industrial needs. Hence, species need be selected before planting. Fallow lands can be effectively utilized by planting bamboos. It can be planted at an escapement (distance between each plant) of 5 metres. Thus in one hectare, 400 seedlings can be planted. Planting has to be done during monsoons in 30cm3 pit. Periodical weeding and protection from grazing will promote healthy growth. Manuring, if done, will boost the growth. Chemical fertilizers with silicate is ideal for bamboos. New shoots generally form during the onset of monsoons. Long culms will form from 4th year of planting. It will take minimum 2 years to get ready for commercial exploitation. 5-6 mature culms can be extracted from every clum. 36 numbers of full length bamboo will weigh 1 MT. While extracting bamboos, only mature bamboos alone need be felled and no clear felling of the clum is advised for the health of the clum and sustained yield. Thus the farmer can extract a minimum quantity of 40 MT from one hectare of plantation every year from 6th year onwards for a period of 30 years. It may be noted that after 3rd year, no special care is needed for these plants till flowering.

Eco- Friendliness of Bamboos

Every bamboo clum (after 6th year) releases double the quantity of oxygen than that of a tree having the same age. Since the roots are very much binding to soil, it can be planted along the riverbanks to prevent soil erosion, as is being done in Kerala and other states. Properly treated bamboos can be used for building and other constructions. Tender shoots of bamboo is edible and is of much demand in North east.

Conclusion

Bamboo is the green gold serving the man in all walks of life. National Bamboo Mission is promoting the cultivation of bamboos all over the nation through concerned State Bamboo Mission.

NEAR-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY

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By : Aamarpali Puri

The NIR region is the one portion of IR region towards the visible wavelength region and ranges from 0.8mm (wave number: 12500cm-1) and goes up to 2.5 mm (wave number: 400cm-1). Near-Infrared (NIR) is the region of combination bands and overtones. Overtones are defined as simple multiples of the fundamental frequencies and occur as a consequence of anharmonicity that is deviation from simple harmonic motions because of interatomic forces and other factors within the molecule. Combination bands result when two fundamental frequencies interact and are influenced by the radiation of combined frequencies representing the fundamental frequencies. Due to presence of these frequencies hydrogenic atoms, being the lightest of all the atoms, vibrate within the NIR region, giving rise to absorptions such as N-H, O-H and C-H groups; commonly found in most food type products.

NIR spectroscopy can be used for determination of moisture, alcohol, oil, protein, fat, starch, amino acids, hydroxyl ion, film thickness, latex, total carbohydrates, nicotine, attributes like stability and internal damage etc. It can be successfully applied in the areas of baked foods, beverages, fruits, grains, dairy products, meats, flows, pharmaceuticals, paper, textiles, plastics, sugar, vegetable and petrochemicals etc. Near-Infrared region is being used extensively in the food industry for the estimation of protein and moisture in wheat (William and Norris, 1983) and to predict the total sugar content of a variety of fruit juices (Lanza and Li, 1984). Near-Infrared spectrometry (Eisen et al., 1984) is a rapid technique for estimating fat, protein and ash content of mice and other animal species from a single instrument scan. NIR spectroscopy is effective for determination of moisture, fat and protein content in the fish and other meats (Solid and Solberg, 1992; Osborne et al., 1993; Shimato et al., 2003) NIR analysis is used for the determination of cotton in polyester yarns (Blanco et al., 1994), and seed oil content and fatty acid composition in sunflower through the analysis of intact seeds, husked seeds, meal and oil (Vich, Velaso and Martinez, 1998).

In sugar industry the testing of sugarcane for pol, brix, sucrose content, invert and other common constituents have traditionally been done by a series of ICUMSA (International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis) and AOAC (Association of Official Agricultural Chemists) test methods. As many of these methods are time consuming, operator dependent and involve the use of hazardous reagents so Near-Infrared analysis has gained rapid acceptance as an alternative method. The various applications (Edye and Clarke, 1996) of NIR in sugar industry are analysis of raw sugar, refinery liquors, run-off syrups, remelts streams, molasses and low purity streams. Near Infrared analysis of shredded (Schaffler and Meyer, 1996) cane is being used as potential replacement for direct analysis of cane. NIR spectroscopy is used for determination of chemical composition (Brix, sugar content, purity) of molasses (Salgo, Nagy and Miko, 1998). NIR spectrophotometeric analysis is an alternative polarization method for raw sugar that uses NIR wavelengths (Player et al., 2000). NIR spectroscopic analysis has become increasingly important in the sugar industry, as the increased awareness for environmental and health topics makes desirable to avoid the clarification with lead acetate. As near infrared wavelengths specific to individual component can be identified, so it can be used for quantitative analysis of constituents of sugarcane.

References:

  1. Edye, L.A and Clarke, M.A. (1996). “Near Infrared Spectroscopy in sugar refining: Five years down the road”. Proc. Annual. Meeting. Sug. Ind. Tech., 55, 1-8.
  2. Eisen, E.J.; Bandy, T.R.; McClure, W.F and Horstgen-Schwark, G. (1984). “Estimating body composition in mice by Near Infrared Spectroscopy”. J. Animal Sci., 58 (5) 1181-1190.
  3. Lanza, E and Li, B.W. (1984). “Application of near Infrared spectroscopy for predicting the sugar content of fruit juices”, J. Food. Sci., 49, 995-998.
  4. Player, M. R.; Rowe, G. S.; Urquhart, R. M.; McCunnie, K.A and McCarthy, D. (2000). “Polarization of raw sugar without basic lead acetate: Int. Collaborative test”. Proc. 22nd Conf. Aust. Soc. Sug. Tech., 385-392.
  5. Salgo, A.; Nagy, J and Miko, E. (1998). “Application of near infrared spectroscopy in the sugar industry”. J. NIR. Spectrosc., 6, 101-106.
  6. Schaffler, K.J and Meyer, J.H. (1996). “Near Infrared analysis of shredded cane: A potential replacement for direct analysis of cane”, Proc. Sth. Afr. Sug. Tech. Assoc., 70 (5), 131-139.
  7. Solid, H and Solberg, C. (1992). “Salmon fat content estimation by Near-Infrared transmission spectroscopy”. J Food Sci., 57, 792-93.
  8. William, P.C and Norris, K.H. (1983). “Effect of mutual Interactions on the estimation of protein and moisture in wheat”, Am. Assoc. Cereal. Chem., 60 (3), 202-207.

ALANINE ON RATE OF CRYSTALLIZATION OF SUCROSE

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By: Aamarpali Puri

 The sugar crystallization is the diffusion-controlled process followed by the deposition of sucrose molecules lattice on to the nuclei. The higher is the temperature, the more is the sugar that can be held in the solution. In sufficiently concentrated solution, there is formation of aggregates among the sucrose molecules. The sugar crystal grows only in a supersaturated solution with the degree of supersaturation defined as the ratio between the total solid content in a supersaturated solution to that in the saturated solution. As the solution enters the supersaturation zone, there is an even higher probability that these aggregates reach dimensions to originate a stable three-dimensional nucleus, which, increasing will form, the sucrose crystals. During crystallization of the sucrose from the mother liquor and it’s subsequent development to produce uniform size and shape of the crystal, there is need to monitor the degree of supersaturation. Supersaturation is an unstable state. In this state the sucrose molecules begin to crystallize back into a solid at the least provocation. Stirring or jostling of any kind can cause the sucrose to begin crystallizing. For achieving optimum crystal growth without forming any false grain, supersaturation has to be kept within the metastable zone (1.05<SS<1.25). An automatic laboratory vacuum pan (Kishihara and Fujii, 1994) was also developed. It was (Kishihara et al., 1993) reported that overall coefficient of the growth rate of sucrose crystals from the ultra filtrate of factory syrup is 1.2 fold greater than that from the original syrup. Sucrose solubility is highly influenced by the presence of both organic and inorganic compounds, which are normally present in the industrial solution. The effect of non-sugars on sucrose solubility depends on both their type and the concentration. The (Maurandii et al., 1982 and 1984; Vanhook, 1983) presence of the impurities in sugar solution has effect analogous to the one exerted by an increase of temperature: a concentration increase promotes an increase of the volume diffusion influence on the overall crystal growth process. Sucrose crystal growth (Guimaraes et al., 1995) rate is sensitive to the variation in the crystal size and slightly influenced by the surface integration, with the diffusion step in crystal growth a significant factor in determining the over all rates. Sucrose crystallization takes place by layer upon layer deposition at the crystal surface and is affected by the non-sugars present. Powers (Powers, 1970) study revealed that if structural affinity with a single face exists, or there is possibility of bond formation, the molecule of impurity could statistically remain on the surface for a period. The increase in the viscosity due to presence of the impurities affects the crystal movement in the bulk of massecuite. The non-sugars present affects the deposition of sugar at different sugar crystal faces and hence the sugar crystal’s growth and quality. All the polysaccharides (Kaur et al., 2004) increase the viscosity of sugar liquor and decrease the rate of sugar crystallization. The growth rate of sucrose crystals increases with the increase in the level of phosphate but decreases with the increase in the level of silica in sugar solution (Puri, A.R and S.Kaur., 2005).  The impurities that are added in the form of a dye tracer (methylene blue) and KCl show no effect on the growth rate.

To obtain sugar both from beet or cane, rather complex processing schemes are followed which depend on the quality and quantity of non-sucrose compounds present in the solutions at the end of the extraction stage. Till now no general applicable theory exists which predicts effects of all the factors that govern the process of crystallization from the solutions, accurately and completely. In the present investigation the growth rate of sugar crystals is studied as a function of supersaturation, temperature and the seed size. So the effect of alanine on growth rate of sucrose crystals is studied at two degrees of supersaturation, at two temperatures and at two different seed sizes of sucrose crystal.

The crystal growth rate depends on the viscosity, which further depend on the nature and amount of the impurities. Impurity gets attached to the sugar crystal by adsorption, occlusion or co-crystallization and influences the spin of the crystal in the solution. Hence, it is found to affect the final colour, shape and size of the crystal.

The sugar cane industry is a major user of nitrogen fertilizer and has an interest in efficient fertilization practice to limit costs and ensure a sensitive environment, which is not exposed to excessive N losses.  Amino acid (Chen, 1985) and amides are present in raw cane juice and molasses. Excessive urea application in fields without potassium and phosphate use is responsible for higher amino compounds in juices. The free Amino acids accumulate in molasses and contribute to sucrose loss when amino acids are linked together to form proteins. In sugar cane plant the total content of nitrogen ranges from 0.036 up to 0.05%. Cane juice contains nitrogenous bodies such as albuminoids, ammonia, amino acids (alanine and glycine) and amides varying from 0.5 to 1.0%. Amino acids are of importance as they along with other nitrogenous bodies reacts with reducing sugars and form colored compounds. In industry, so many efforts are done to remove color. Analyzing amino acids in a sample can help solving color problem in sugar to some extent.

Alanine is a non-essential amino acid and was first isolated in 1879. It is one of the 20 amino acids used to synthesize proteins in terrestrial living organisms. It is an inhibitory or calming neurotransmitter in brain. Alanine (Molecular formula C3H7NO2) is the major amino acid present in cane juice. As percentage dry solids, the alanine is 0.06% free and is 0.05% as protein. It is one of the 20 most common natural amino acids. It is hydrophobic, with a methyl group side chain, and is the second-smallest of the 20 after glycine. It is also known as 2-aminopropanoic acid. As shown (Fig .1), its alpha carbon atom is bonded to a carboxyl group (COO–), an amino group (NH3+), a methyl group (CH3), and a hydrogen atom.

It exists as two distinct enantiomers, L-alanine and D-alanine, the former of which is used in protein synthesis. In the present study growth rate of sugar crystals in the presence of alanine has been studied.

Abbemat digital automatic refractometer was used for determining Brix. The rate of sugar crystallization was studied using two-litre laboratory vacuum pan.

Sucrose crystallization is a mass transfer process, sucrose molecules migration from solution, to crystal, driven by concentration differences between the mother liquor and the crystal surface. The rate of sugar crystallization was studied at two temperatures 328 and 338K in the laboratory vacuum pan in the presence of varying concentrations of alanine at the two seed sizes 850 μm and 600 μm  The increase in alanine content in the sugar solution decreases the growth rate of sugar crystals. The growth rate was found to increase both with the increase in the supersaturation and 100C rise in temperature. However, the increase was more significant with the increase in supersaturation then with 100C rise in temperature. It can be concluded that the presence of alanine impedes the growth of sucrose crystals.

 REFRENCES:

 Chen, C.P. (1985). “Cane Sugar Handbook 11th Edition”. A Wiley-Interscience publication. John Wiley & Sons, New York., 34-35.

 Honing, P. (1963). “Principals of Sugar Technology”. Vol II Elsevier Publishing Co. London.

 Kaur, S.; Kaler. R.S.S and Aamarpali.  (2004). “Effect of polysaccharides on rate of crystallization of sucrose”. Ind. Sug. July, 265-268.

 Kishihara, S.; Tamaki, H.; Wakiuchi, N and Fijis, S. (1993). “Effect of Ultra filtration of factory sugar solution on growth of sucrose crystals”. Int. Sug. J., 95, 1135, 273-276.

 Kishihara, S and Fuji, S. (1994). “Development of an automatic laboratory boiling pan”. Int. Sug. J. 96, 1151, 451-455.

Mathur, R.L. (1986b). “Handbook of cane sugar technology IInd Edition”. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., India, 26.

Teacher Burn Out and Stress Management

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By: Shaifali Rachna Puri and Sneh Lata

A teacher is an instrument that gives shape to the raw material provided to her/ him in the form of pupils. A teacher is the pivot around which the society and its functioning revolves. It is an accepted fact that it is in the hands of the teacher to give appropriate design to her students. A teacher can produce a friend as well as a foe of the society with the help of the guidance provided to the pupils. There are various facts concerning the teachers that can have a positive as well as negative impact on the personality of a teacher who has to play such an important role for the society. These factors cannot be avoided at any cost, rather should be treated with full attention. Major factors in this regard are Stress and Teacher Burnout.
Teacher’s Stress: Teacher stress is a much talked of phenomenon, however there is little consensus between different professional groups regarding its etiology, or how to tackle it. Based on a review of international research, it is concluded that teacher stress is a real phenomenon and that high levels are reliably associated with a range of causal factors, including those intrinsic to teaching, individual vulnerability and systemic influences.
Causes: There are unquestionably a number of causal factors in teacher stress. Although stress always involves a transaction between the individual and their environment, inability of the individual to adjust in the environment around etc. For general reference we can divide causal factors in teacher stress into three broad areas; factors intrinsic to teaching, cognitive factors affecting the individual vulnerability of teachers and systemic factors operating at the institutional and political level. The main causes of teacher stress are insecurity in job, overwork, less appreciation, over commitment to job and being under salaried. A factor related to workload is role overload, which takes place when an employee has to cope with a number of competing roles within their job. Classroom discipline is also a significant source of stress. An analysis in 1999 was made regarding teachers’ estimations of stress arising from being unable to discipline pupils in the way they would prefer. Overall, maintaining discipline emerged as a stressor, with those worst affected being teachers who placed particular emphasis on pupil empowerment. Changes in the work environment and a feeling of lack of control over work also are major causes of the unrelieved stress. Evaluation is a process that gives an estimate of the grasp of the learner but several times it becomes a source of stress and tension. When asked the student teachers, it was found that of all the sources of stress for student teachers, evaluation was the greatest, they were found to be most afraid of the discussion lessons, although this fear declined following teaching practice, suggesting that it is reduced by exposure and positive experiences of observation feedback. People with tendencies to place too-high expectations on themselves also may be more prone to stress. When carried too far, compulsiveness, perfectionism, and inflated self-confidence can have detrimental impacts on one’s professional and personal life. Setting unrealistic goals, thinking anything is possible with the right amount of work, and taking on more than one know one can handle will leave the person striving to maintain an intensity that simply cannot be sustained over time and will lead to stress.

Teacher Burn Out: When the body and mind are relentlessly strained, one is bound to develop emotional and physical fatigue. Burnout is a physical, mental, and emotional response to constant levels of high stress. Burnout produces feelings of hopelessness, powerlessness, cynicism, resentment and failure—as well as stagnation and reduced productivity. These stress reactions can result in levels of depression or unhappiness that eventually threatens one’s job, relationships and health. Burnout is associated with situations in which a person feels:
• Overworked
• Under appreciated
• Confused about expectations and priorities
• Concerned about job security
• Over committed with responsibilities
• Resentful about duties that are not commensurate with pay etc etc.
Burnout can occur when one feels that one is unable to meet constant demands, and becomes increasingly overwhelmed and depleted of energy. Debilitating sadness, anger or indifference can set in this situation. One begins to lose the interest or motivation that led one to take on a certain role in the first place. Burnout is not simply excessive stress. Rather, it is a complex human reaction to ongoing stress, and it relates to feeling that one’s inner resources are inadequate for managing the tasks and situations presented. The signs and symptoms of burnout are similar to those of stress, but burnout includes an emotional exhaustion and an increasingly negative attitude towards work and, perhaps, one’s life too.
Burnout has been found to proceed in stages that blend into one another so smoothly that one might not realize what is happening until one is in a state of despair and physical and emotional breakdown. One might begin a new job with boundless energy. Yet soon finds himself in a state of disillusionment and disappointment. One might feel confused and can’t quite put finger on what’s wrong. Feelings of frustration and irritability eventually give way to full-scale exhaustion and fatigue.
Some people experiencing burnout will feel as if their jobs are no longer interesting or enjoyable. They become indecisive, their productivity drops, and their work deteriorates. They may not even care about doing a good job and often perform tasks by rote. These people feel bored and put-upon, they may dread going to work in the morning, and they may feel envious of others who are happy with their work.
Effect: It leads to development of negative attitude towards life and work. It leads to loss of interest and motivation in working area. When stressed, body begins to show signs of psychological illness, headache, high blood pressure, stokes, heart attacks, fatigue and indigestion etc. In stress person is frustrated, powerless and detached from people and things around. Stress is very clearly seen to affect personal relation ships and leads to sadness and depression.
Since burnout is not an overnight occurrence, it’s important to recognize its early signs and to act before the problem becomes severe. In a chronic state of stress, the body will begin to show the following physical signs of stress overload:
• Psychosomatic illnesses (psychological/emotional problems which manifest themselves physically)
• Digestive problems
• Headaches
• High blood pressure
• Heart attacks
• Strokes
• Teeth grinding
• Fatigue
When one is on the verge of burnout, one may feel:
• Powerless
• Drained
• Like a candle burning at both ends
• Frustrated
• Detached from people and things around.
• Bored
• Resentment for having too much to do.
• Stuck in a situation from which one cannot extricate oneself.
• Unsure about choice of job or career.
• Withdrawn, isolated from coworkers and friends
• Insecure about own competence and abilities
• Cynical
• Irritable
• Anxious 

Stress Management: The aim of stress management is to help a person balance the various aspects of his life— work, relationships and leisure—and to balance the physical, intellectual and emotional aspects of life. People who effectively manage stress consider life a challenge rather than a series of irritations, and they feel they have control over their lives, even in the face of setbacks.
Stress can be managed if pin pointed at it’s on set. By this one gets control of the situation in which one gets stressed. Burn out builds up by and by and it is not overnight occurrence. Seeking doctor, having good diet, proper sleep and exercise, can prevent burnout. With self-suggestion, consulting therapist and time management one can avoid burn out. Person should know his or her mental and physical potential and choose carrier accordingly. By renewing body, spirit and mind one can enjoy a healthy and sustainable life. A person to avoid and prevent stress can adopt various methods:
1. Knowing what causes stress can help a person cope with it better and provide mental and emotional relief. There are many ways to plan for and avert stress. Recognizing one’s own specific triggers is one of the first steps in the process of stress management.
2. One may be experiencing stress because the life has become out of balance. One may be spending too much time and energy on work or on caring for others at the expense of one’s own health and well being.
3. One of the most effective things we can do when we are stressed is to talk from our heart to a friendly listener who remains calm and listens in a way that makes us feel understood. Studies show that people who are active socially are most capable of dealing with stressful situations and major illnesses.
4. A person’s attitude has a lot to do with whether events and occurrences produce a feeling of stress. Once we admit that we are not able to control everything, we will be better equipped to handle unexpected situations. Stress management comes down to finding ways to change our thinking and manage our expectations.
5. Taking care of body, mind and spirit can help reduce feelings of anxiety and frustration that often accompany stress. One might be surprised by how much stress relief a long bubble bath or a quick catnap will provide.
6. Try to take time everyday to slow down and do something enjoyable, even if it is just for a few minutes. Reading a magazine, playing with dog, reading child a book, or any other activity that helps forget the stresses of day.
7. Writing things down has a marvelous way of putting things in perspective. Putting one’s worries into words may help one see that one doesn’t really have that much to worry about, or it may help get organized and manage stress, rather than letting it manage oneself.

References:

1. Will J. G. Evers “Burnout among Teachers” Department of Psychology, The Open University, Heerlen, the Netherlands
2. Admiraal WF, Korthagen FAJ & Wubbels T (2000) “Effects of Student Teachers’ Coping Behaviour”. British Journal of Educational Psychology 70, 33-52.
3. Matt Jarvis Stress News 2002 Vol. No
4. Lanier, J.and J.Little. “ Research on Teacher Education.” in Handbook of Research on Teaching, Third Edition, edited by M.Wittrock.New York: Macmillan, 1986
5. “Burnout: Signs, Symptoms and Prevention”. Help guide- Mental Health Issue. An online Journal
6. “Coping with Stress: Management and Reduction Techniques”. Help guide- Mental Health Issue. An online Journal.

Importance of Coordination

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By: Prapanna Lahiri

Coordination has been variously defined as stated below:

  1. Co-ordination is the unification, integration, synchronisation of the efforts of group members so as to provide unity of action in the pursuit of common goals.
  2. Coordination refers to integration of activities of individuals in a group, between multiple groups and/ or departments within an organisation aimed at achieving the objectives of the organisation formed by these units.  Coordination is often confused with cooperation. Co-ordination is an orderly arrangement of efforts to provide unity of action in fulfilment of common objective whereas co-operation denotes collective efforts of persons working in an organisation voluntarily for the achievement of a particular purpose. It is the willingness of individuals to help each other. Coordination can be enforced while cooperation comes from within.
  3. From the aforesaid definitions it is clear coordination applies to group activities and not to individual activities. Coordination does not come automatically and needs to be enforced to bring about unity of action.

Management experts have emphasised about the primacy of coordination in organisational theory:

1. “Coordination is the Essence of Management.” I.e. Coordination affects all the functions of management, viz., Planning, Organizing, Staffing, etc.

Management seeks to achieve co-ordination through its basic functions of planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling. Thus, co-ordination is not a separate function of management since achieving harmony between individuals’ efforts towards achievement of the group goals is a key to success of management. Co-ordination is the essence of management and is implicit and inherent in all functions of management

2. Coordination is a function of management.

3. Coordination is a principle of management; more specifically coordination is the ‘Mother Principle,” in as much as all other principles are included in this one principle.

4. Coordination is the “Plus-value of the group,” says Mary Parker Follett, an American social worker and a pioneer on organisational behaviour. It means in a group sporting good coordination between its constituent individuals, the combined group achievement can be greater than the added value of the individual achievements. It substantively means 2+2 may add up to 5 in terms of activities of a well coordinated human group though physically it is impossible. The need for coordination may be listed under three fundamental categories:

Why Coordination is necessary:

The need for coordination may be listed under three fundamental categories:

  1. Division of labour
  2. Interdependence of individuals and functions.
  3. Integration of individual with organization

On the basis of above broad categories the need for coordination within an organisation may be further expanded under the following heads:

Specialisation:  The principal benefit of the principle of division of labour is specialisation. The first step towards ensuring specialisation is segregation of the organisation into different parts. Now, to gear all these parts into achieving a common organisational goal the segregated parts require coordination. Thus, Coordination is important for achieving job specialization.

Unity of Action: An organisation performs with diverse resources, both material and human. Coordination becomes important to fulfil intended organisational goals by reducing the diversity and restoring unity of action of these diverse resources, human skills, tasks and perceptions.

Optimum utilisation of resources: Coordination is important to consolidate the human and material resources of the organization. By minimising wastage and by streamlining usages of resources their optimum utilisation is ensured.

Quick achievement of objectives: Coordination is important to minimise conflicts, rivalries, wastages, delays and other organizational problems. The collective organisational goal is quickly achieved by removing the said hindrances.

Encouragement of team spirit: Coordination reduces conflicts between individuals and departments, between line and staff and between individual objectives and organisational objectives. This encourages working in a team and boosts team spirit.

Improved Intra organisational relationship: Coordination has an important role in promoting relationships between various levels of management and operatives, right from the Top Level to the Middle Level, to the Lower Level and finally to the workers and operatives, since each level coordinates the functions of level coming under it.

Facilitation of motivation: Coordination encourages individual initiative and freedom within an individual’s domain by removing friction and overlapping of responsibilities. It becomes easier to extend financial and non-financial incentives. This ensures job satisfaction and motivation to perform better.

Higher efficiency: As already stated coordination ensures optimum utilisation of material and human resources; it automatically results in savings on costs. Since efficiency is a measure of higher returns relative to costs incurred it can logically be concluded that coordination leads to higher efficiency. Moreover coordination enhances collective competence pooling together each individual employee’s knowledge in creating a knowledge pool. This is critical for survival of an organization in a competitive environment.

Interdependence: Although with division of labour an organisation operates by segregating its activities into different functional areas, the interdependence of every function finally helps in realising the organisational objectives. This interdependence and synchronisation is secured through coordination.

Balancing inequalities and restoring teamwork: Individual inequalities and differences cause imbalances in an organisation. Coordination irons out these imbalances and facilitates teamwork to achieve organisational goals.

Synergising differentiated work: As earlier explained success of an organisation is dependent on a scenario where combined effect of efforts becomes greater than the sum of their separate effects. Coordination helps in synergising differentiated work units to achieve the integrated effects. It is possible to achieve synergy through effective coordination as it helps in integration even in differentiation.

Integration of Individual and Organisational Goals: Individual needs decide Individual goals. It may not be coterminous with group or organisational goals. The need is to harmonise these goals to attain desired results. Coordination is the tool to accomplish this harmonisation.    

Modern day growing organisations feature an effective network of huge number of people working in unison. Coordination is the instrument that makes this possible. The points explained above amply illustrate the extent of importance that the principle of coordination has in the success of a robust organisation. Without coordination, it is difficult to achieve the desired goals. This is why Chester Barnard the noted American business executive and author opined “…the quality of coordination is the crucial factor in the survival of organization.”