Category: Publications 2015 – 2016

Hypothermia

Posted on by Aamarpali

By: Aamarpali Puri

Hypothermia means losing heat faster than one’s body can produce it, causing a drop in (inner) body temperature. If body is immersed under cold water, heat escapes from the body thus speeding up hypothermia. Human being need cloths to keep them warm unlike other warm-blooded animals that have a layer of hair to keep them warm. Without that extra layer of clothing, more heat escapes from the body than the body can produce. Extended exposure to cold temperatures or a cool, damp environment causes Hypothermia. It leads to decrease in body temperature, impaired consciousness, and slurred speech, very slow rate of breathing, fatigue, lethargy, confusion, or disorientation. The affected person should be kept warm and dry indoors. Elderly, intoxicated or very young people are vulnerable.

  • Advanced age. People aged 65 and older are especially vulnerable because they usually have other illnesses or take medications that can interfere with the body’s ability to regulate temperature.
  • Very young age. Children usually lose heat faster than adults do. Children have a larger head-to-body ratio than adults do, making them more prone to heat loss through the head. Infants may have a special problem with the cold because they have less efficient mechanisms for generating heat.
  • Alcohol and drug use. Alcohol may make your body feel warm inside, but it lowers your body’s ability to retain heat. It keeps our blood vessels dilated, restrict your shivering response, impair your judgment and alter awareness of weather conditions.
  • Certain medical conditions. Some health disorders affect the body’s ability to respond to cold or to produce heat. Examples include untreated under active thyroid (hypothyroidism), stroke, severe arthritis, Parkinson’s disease, trauma, spinal cord injuries, burns, blood vessel or nerve disorders that affect sensation in your extremities (for example, peripheral neuropathy in people with diabetes), dehydration and any condition that limits activity or restrains the normal flow of blood.

Some valuable tips to avoid hypothermia:

  • Eat properly with plenty of carbohydrates and fats for energy and warmth.
  • Drink plenty of water.
  • Get enough sleep. Being well rested will make you feel energized and positive.
  • Remove any wet clothes immediately. They cause accelerated heat loss and impair movement.
  • Insulate well, particularly the head and neck as these are the areas which lose the most heat the quickest.

Prevention
Avoid alcohol consumption and the use of illegal substances should be stopped because these increase the risk of hypothermia. Since alcohol lowers the body’s resistance to cold water, it greatly increases the effect of torso reflex (the unexpected blast of cold water causing an automatic gasp for air) by increasing the metabolic rate and demand for oxygen in frigid water. As the alcohol level in a person’s body increases, coordination abilities decrease.

Before stepping out into cold air, remember the advice that follows with the simple acronym COLD:

  • C for cover. Wear a hat or other protective covering to prevent body heat from escaping from your head, face and neck. Cover your hands with mittens instead of gloves. Mittens are more effective than gloves because mittens keep your fingers in closer contact with one another.
  • O for overexertion. Avoid activities that would cause you to sweat a lot. The combination of wet clothing and cold weather can give you chills.
  • L for layers. Wear loose fitting, layered, lightweight clothing. Outer clothing made of tightly woven, water-repellent material is best for wind protection. Wool, silk or polypropylene inner layers hold more body heat than cotton does.
  • D for dry. Stay as dry as possible. In the winter, pay special attention to places where snow can enter, such as in loose mittens or snow boots.

References:

  1. http://www.emprc.org/jan98/chill.html.
  2. http://www.climbing-high.com/hypothermia.html.
  3. http://www.seagrant.umn.edu/coastal_communities/hypothermia.

Happy New Year 2016!

Posted on by Aamarpali

Dear Friends, Well wishers, Readers and Followers,

Wish you a very Happy 2016. May you have a splendid year and that will keep all of us at Concept Research Foundation happy.

With warm regards,

On behalf of Concept Research Foundation,

Dr. Aamarpali Puri

Director

Concept Research Foundation

Smart Cities

Posted on by Aamarpali

By Prapanna Lahiri

The worldwide trend of people flocking in large numbers from the countryside to settle down in old historical cities and new evolving cities forced urban administrators and planners to start looking for more innovative solutions to the challenges to urban living. The local and national governments face challenges of finding smarter infrastructure solutions in the areas of housing, jobs, food, transport, energy, communication networks and technological innovations for cleaner environment. From these challenges has emerged the concept of ‘smart city’ which in many ways is the ideal habitat that provides smarter solutions to all these urban imperatives.

There is no universally accepted definition of Smart City which means different things to different people. It would carry a different meaning in India than, say, in Europe. The idea of a smart city primarily begins with using digital technology that makes a city more efficient and improves wellbeing of its inhabitants. The concept of ‘Smart Cities’ became popular within the European Union. Studies show that the cities consume 75% of worldwide energy production and generate 80% of CO2 emissions. Accordingly, the European Community’s initiatives for Smart Cities focussed, among other factors, on issues of sustainability such as buildings, energy networks and transport.  Definition: The Business Dictionary defines a smart city as “a developed urban area that creates sustainable economic development and high quality of life by excelling in multiple key areas; economy, mobility, environment, people, living, and government. Excelling in these key areas can be done so through strong human capital, social capital, and/ or ICT infrastructure.” [ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology].

A simple definition of smart city could be — a city equipped with basic infrastructure to give a decent quality of life, a clean and sustainable environment through application of some smart solutions.

The relative emphasis on various characteristics that define a smart city should be in conformity with the level of development, willingness to change and reform, available resources and aspirations of the city residents. Two other terms, namely, ‘intelligent city’ and ‘digital city’ have also been used while describing ‘smart cities’.

In India: The National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government, since taking over, has focussed particular attention on the urbanisation front. From the very beginning of his election campaign in 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi had spoken about building 100 smart cities in India. This has been part of the great Modi vision to make this – India’s century alongside other ambitious schemes like bullet trains and linked rivers. The Modi government’s concept of a smart city goes a bit broader, basically meaning any city that also works well, particularly for businesses.

Investment: The Union Government has planned to select 100 cities in three phases — 20 in 2015-16 and 40 each in subsequent years to be developed as Smart Cities. The Smart Cities Mission was allocated an aggregate outlay of Rs 48,000 crore, with Rs 100 crore earmarked for each city per year for successive five years. The aggregate investment in urban renewal though looks huge; the investment per city seems relatively small making it clear that the government expects most of the financial support for smart cities to come from private investment. The government also announced relaxation of norms for foreign direct investment from overseas companies to invest in smart cities. The government has mooted the idea of Special Purpose Vehicles to be set up for smart cities by each state to ensure their financing. Collaborations have also been sought from France, Japan, Singapore and other countries for the projects. The intent also is to link this mission to other key projects of the government such as Digital India and Swachh Bharat (Clean India).

Smart City Mission of the government envisions taking courageous and path breaking initiatives. It intends setting examples which could be replicated both within and outside the Smart City. The initiatives can catalyse creation of similar Smart Cities in various regions of the country. The mission encompasses the following core infrastructure elements for a smart city:

  1. Assured electricity supply
  2. Adequate water supply
  3. Affordable housing (especially for the poor)
  4. Sanitation, including solid waste management
  5. Storm water drainage to reduce flooding
  6. Efficient public transport and urban mobility
  7. Pedestrian only zones and parking spaces
  8. Health and education
  9. Safety and security of citizens, particularly women, children and the elderly,
  10. Sustainable environment
  11. Durable IT connectivity and digitalisation,
  12. Good governance, especially e-Governance with citizens’ participation.

Smart Cities need Smart Solutions designed to improve quality of life. Solutions to be called smart should be right sized to the challenges they are required to address; bigger is not necessarily better. Some of the smart solutions to the core infrastructure elements picked from experience of urban planners the world over are: −

  1. Smart IT and Communications
  • Digital Empowerment
  • Broadband and Wi-Fi connectivity
  • Smart Phones and Mobile Apps

     2. E-Governance and Citizen Services

  • Citizen Engagement in planning/ feedback
  • Public Information/ Grievance Redressed.
  • Electronic Service Delivery (E-filing forms, Fault Booking, Issuing Licence, Permit & Certificates and E-Payment & Receipt
  • Video Crime Monitoring

      3.    Waste Management

  • Waste segregation
  • Waste to Energy/ Fuel/ Compost
  • Treating Waste Water/ Recycling
  • Reduction/ Recycling of Construction & Demolition Waste

     4. Water Management

  • Smart Water Meters/ Consumption Monitoring
  • Leakage Identification, Preventive Maintenance
  • Water Quality Monitoring
  • Rain Water Harvesting

    5. Energy Management

  • Smart Energy Meters
  • Renewable Energy sources
  • LED Lighting
  • Energy Efficient & Green Buildings

    6. Urban Mobility

  • Smart Parking concepts
  • Intelligent Traffic Management
  • Integrated Multi-Modal Transport

    7. Others/ Miscellaneous

  • Smart Buildings, Smart Living Solutions
  • Smart Disaster Management Strategies
  • Tele-Medicine & Tele Education
  • Incubation/ Trade Facilitation Centres
  • Skill Development/ Sustainable livelihood

A “Smart City” has been visualised as an urban model where sustainability, economic development and a high quality of life constitute the key factors. The vision is for an urban space which is ecologically friendly, technologically integrated and precisely planned, making maximum possible usage of information technology to improve efficiency.

Happy New year 2016 & Merry Christmas

Posted on by Aamarpali

Dear Friends,

The holidays are special time for family and friends to come together and celebrate the gift of love everlasting. It is time of eggnog, candle, cakes, songs, carols, love and laughter. The spirit of Christmas should not be for one day but for whole year. Wishing you all love joy and peace the whole year round.

Merry Christmas and Happy New Year 2016!

Dr Aamarpali Puri

Research Problem, Objectives, Hypothesis and Method in a Research

Posted on by Aamarpali

By: Shaifali Rachna Puri

The Problem

Every year new innovations, new concepts and new ways of doing things in all areas of human endeavor emerge. The wider the horizon of our mental outlook, the more and more problems occur to us. The problem solving process continues like an unending spiral. Preliminary problems lead to more intrinsic problems. The field of education being no exception to this general rule of human knowledge also abounds in problems of diverse nature but every problem cannot be termed worthwhile. Since the goal of education has been recognized as national, social and individual development. So the need and importance of research has been realized increasingly in the field of education.

Those who are experienced know that research is often tedious, slow in nature and rarely spectacular. They realize that the research for truth and the solutions of the important problems take a lot of time and energy and the intensive application of logical thinking. Research makes its contribution to human welfare by countless small additions to knowledge. The researcher has some of the characteristics of ant, which is capable of bringing its single grain of sand to the anthill.

                 According to P.M.Cook: “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. It is the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collections, analysis and interpretation of data.  The best research is that which is reliable, verifiable and exhaustive so that it provides information in which we have confidence

Objectives Of Study

Without clear formulation of aims and objectives of research, the investigator is likely to wander aimlessly in the field and achieve nothing worthwhile.

Hypothesis

When attacking a problem, an educator, a chemist or detective gathers many facts. But he is not merely interested in ‘Facts, facts and only facts’. The most authentic and widely prevalent method of conducting research on scientific line is to assume hypothesis, which may be accepted or rejected at the end of the inquiry.

Hypothesis is guidance in the research of evidence. It determines the particular line along with the experiment is built. Hypothesis is a guess, a supposition and proposition assumed for the sake of argument. It is a Speculation, an explanation for offering imaginary answers to a question, a temporary explanation for an event. It is a theory, a thesis, and a principle yet to be proved or disapproved by reference to facts or evidence.

                 According to Best, John W. –  “ Hypothesis is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation”

              According to Bruce. W. –  “ A hypothesis then could be designed as an explanation about event based generalization of the assumed relationship between variables”

                 According to Mouley G.J.-  “ Hypothesis is an assumption or preposition whose testability is to be tested on the basis of the empirical evidence with previous knowledge”

Thus, a hypothesis is defined as a statement for the tentative relationship of two or more variables. The relationship of the variables may either be normative or casual relationship. It should be based on some rational. It should be based on accepted facts, testable, tenable, possible, clear, expert and deductive reasoning.

Delimitation Of The Problem

        In the words of Best John.W, “ Delimitations are the boundaries of the study.”

To trim an investigation to manageable size, a researcher may confine his attention to the events that occurred during the given segment of time or in a given place or to the relationship between two or more clearly identified variables.

Method

By method we mean a systematic approach towards a particular phenomenon Methodology used in an investigation to determine its destiny. It is the nature of techniques and procedures adopted which determines the reliability, precision and validity.

In research there are various methods & procedures to be applied.

(1) Historical method

(2) Experimental method

(3) Descriptive method

It is the nature of the problem under investigation, which determines the adoption of a particular method and procedure. There is need to make judicious selection of the techniques, keeping in view the aims and objectives of the study, time factor, availability of the subjects and other resources at the disposal of investigator. Various writers have classified descriptive studies into different categories. Some have been classified on the basis of purposes they achieve, some on the basis of techniques they employ. These classifications mostly range from the survey in which they describe to the status quo of the educational variables to the co relational study, which investigate the relationship between variables. For the sake of convenience descriptive studies may be classified into the following three categories: –

(1)   Survey studies

(2)   Interrelationship studies

(3)   Development studies

Also, there are many procedures, which can be developed to meet the needs of different purposes and conditions. Thus when one desires facts from people about themselves he may interview them, ask them to submit a text or examination or to produce something evidencing their skill or interest. In all, six different types of normative surveys are recognized when the basis is the technique employed. These are: –

(1)   Survey Testing

(2)   Questionnaire Inquiries

(3)   Case studies

(4)   Interview studies

(5)   Observation studies

(6)   Appraisal Procedures

Answers to some common questions (Part-2)

Posted on by Aamarpali

By: Aamarpali Puri

Q: What all workers and medical staff who are likely to be near radioactive or ionizing sources must wear to monitor their exposure to radiations?

A: To monitor their exposure to radiations they must wear lapel radiation badges containing photographic film.

Q: The aprons of those who are involved in radiotherapy treatment are lined with which element?

A: Lead.

Q: What will be the order of danger from alpha, beta and gamma radiations if the radioactive source gets inside the body?

A: The ‘danger’ order is alpha > beta > gamma.  The bigger the mass or charge of the particle, the bigger will be its ionizing impact on atoms/molecule. Because the order of mass is 4 > 1/1850 > 0, and for electric charge the order is 2+ > -1 > 0.  If the radioisotope is in the body the radiation impacts directly on cells with the consequences described above.

Q: What will be the order of danger from alpha, beta and gamma radiations if the radioactive source is outside the body?

A: If the radioactive source is outside the body, the order danger is reversed to gamma > beta > alpha because the danger order follows the pattern of penetrating power. The smaller the mass and charge the more penetrating the radiation (reverse the order of above). Gamma and beta are the most penetrating and will reach vital organs in the body and be absorbed.  Most gammas passes through soft tissue but some is inevitably absorbed by cells.  Alpha radiation would not penetrate clothing and is highly unlikely to reach living cells.

Q: How radioactive isotopes help in smoke detecting?

OR

Q: How α particles work in smoke detectors?

A: As Alpha particles are easily stopped, an alpha source is used in some smoke detectors. A sealed alpha source of Americium-241 (half-life 458 years, producing constant signal) sends a stream of alpha particles to a sensor across an air gap. Any smoke present will block the alpha particles and change the sensor signal, this change in signal triggers the alarm. Beta and gamma radiation would be of no use because the smoke particles would not stop them. There will be no change in signal and no alarm will be triggered.

Q: How cartilaginous fishes solve the problem of conserving body water in strongly hypertonic environment?

A: They solve this problem by maintaining a high concentration of urea in their blood.

Q: Why is water great solvent?

A: That’s because the charged ends of the water molecules are attracted to the charges on other molecules. Water molecules will surround soluble molecules or ions in a hydration shell. This helps keep the molecules in solution.

Q: What makes insects capable of walking on the surface of water?

A: Surface tension of water.

Q: Which important defensive compound is present in plant?

A: Terpenes.

Q: Which bond maintains protein’s proper shape?

A: Hydrogen bond between water molecules and amino acids.

Q: In human body calories ingested in a meal and not used immediately by tissues are converted to triglycerides and transported to fat cells to be stored? Excess of these triglycerides is harmful for human body, why?

A: They are harmful because they cause body to produce excess cholesterol.

Q: What is the function of formic acid in ants?

A: Alarm and defense.

Q: How the motion of planets in an orbit and that of electrons in orbit different?

A: Planet moves around the sun in an orbit which can be plotted and electrons are in orbital which is the space around nucleus where probability of finding electrons is maximum.

Q: When a metal is melted what happens to its bonds?

A: On melting bond is loosened not broken.

Q: Why moss is used in dressing of wounds?

A: It has ability to absorb blood or any liquid substance.

Q: Occurrence of aquatic moss at some place indicates presence of which element in soil?

A: Calcium

Q: How Bryophytes prevent soil erosion?

A: They prevent soil erosion due to their trample resistant structure and their regenerative ability.

Q: How Bryophytes aid in moisture conservation?

A: They envelop the forest floor and tree trunks and aid in moisture conservation.

Q: Why Merceya, Mielichhoferia elongate are known as copper mosses?

A: They are known as copper bryophytes because they grow in copper rich soil.

Answers to some common questions (Part-1)

Posted on by Aamarpali

 By : Aamarpali Puri

Q: Why cooked apple doesn’t turn brown?

A: The oxidation reaction is slowed or prevented by inactivating the enzyme with heat (cooking). Heat denatures the enzyme.

Q: Why cutlery that has corrosion should not be used in cut apples, pears, bananas, peaches and potatoes?

A: Using cutlery that has some corrosion (as is seen with lower quality steel knives) can increase the rate and amount of the browning by making more iron salts available for the oxidation reaction.

Q: Why browning of apple slice is faster than that of rusting of iron?

A: Fresh cut apples turn brown when iron-containing chemicals inside apple cells react with oxygen in the air.  We see this every day when iron objects rust, or when scabs on cuts turn brown. The chemical reaction is called “oxidation”, and the enzyme that regulates oxidation in apples is called “polyphenol oxidase” (PPO), also known as “tyrosinase”. In case of rusting or browning of iron, enzyme is not available to accelerate the reaction. So reaction is slow.

Q: Why adult male have usually deep voice then that of female?

A: The male vocal cords are longer than female vocal cords due to which male voice is deeper.

Q: Why is it that when an animal is excited its blood flow to the muscles increases?

A: This actually increases the level of oxygen in muscles at the time of excitement.

Q: Why in the presence of ozone allergies have tendency to become desensitized?

A: In allergic reactions deprived of oxygen, white blood cells malfunction. They fail to eliminate invaders and even turn against normal healthy cells. Ozone significantly raises the oxygen level in blood, which stimulates proper functioning and production of white blood cells in our body.

Q: If cancerous cell is exposed to ozone what will happen?

A: Ozone is antineoplastic. This means that ozone inhibits the growth of new tissue because rapidly dividing cells shift their priorities away from producing the enzymes needed to protect themselves from the ozone. Cancer cells are rapidly dividing cells and are inhibited by ozone.

Q: What is the effect of ozone on petrochemicals?

A: Ozone degrades petrochemicals. These chemicals have a potential to place a great burden on the immune system. They also worsen and even cause allergies and are detrimental to your long-term health.

Q: Why it is good to weep some times?

A: An enzyme called lysozyme is present in tears that destroy the cell membranes of certain bacteria thus protecting our eyes from them.

Q: While running which tendon elevates the heel in the springy motion essential for running and jumping?

A: Achilles’ tendon, which is by necessity the toughest and strongest of human tendons.

Q: Why without recycling activities of micro organisms life would grind to a standstill?

A: If micro organisms stop their recycling activity all nutrients would get locked up in dead plants and animals.

Q: Why paper industry prefers to use algal pigments rather than chemical dyes and coloring agents?

A: While recycling paper algal dye decomposes easily but chemical dye doesn’t decompose. So paper made from algal dye can be recycled but that made from chemical dye cannot be recycled.

Q: What is bio hydrogen?

A: Bio hydrogen is hydrogen produced via biological processes or from biomass.

Q: Why algae live close to surface of some sponges?

A: Sponge protects it from predators.

Q: Lichen is not a single organism rather it is a combination of two organisms which live intimately together. Which are they?

A: Fungus with green algae or fungus with cyanobacterium together forms Lichen.

Q: Why thermal conductivity of ice reduces with increasing pressure?

A: It happens due to pressure induced bending of the hydrogen bonding thus decreasing the transverse sound velocity.

Q: Oligosaccharides are present on cell membranes and surfaces. What is there function?

A: They serve as cell marker.

Q: What is the difference between orbit and orbital? Are these terms same?

A: Path traveled by planet around the sun is orbit and the space around nucleus where probability of finding electrons is maximum is orbital. So orbit and orbital are not the same.

Q: How lichen survives in arid conditions?

A: Lichen produces secondary compounds, including pigments that reduce harmful amounts of sunlight and powerful toxins that reduce herbivory or kills bacteria.

Q: How cartilaginous fishes solve the problem of conserving body water in strongly hypertonic environment?

A: They solve this problem by maintaining a high concentration of urea in their blood.

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SULPHATE IN CANE JUICE USING NEAR-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY

Posted on by Aamarpali

By: Aamarpali Puri

ABSTRACT:

Presence of sulphate in cane juice has detrimental effect it leads to formation of hard scales on the surface of evaporators. Near Infrared Spectrophotometer of Elico (India) in the spectral range of 600-2500nm has been used for the quantitative estimation sulphate in cane juice. A calibration model was set up for this in transmission mode using Partial Least Square Regression Analysis with thirty samples of cane juice containing varying concentrations of sulphate. Statistical parameters like standard error of calibration and correlation coefficient have been evaluated. The model was used to predict the concentration of sulphate in twenty unknown samples of cane juice not present in the calibration file. The standard error of prediction was found to be 0.522 for sulphate. Multi Linear Regression Analysis was also done and the wavelengths have been identified at which the absorbance correlated well with the concentrations of sulphate.

Keywords: sulphate, calibration, transmittance, partial least square regression, stepwise multi linear regression

INTRODUCTION:

The NIR region is the one portion of IR region towards the visible wavelength region and ranges from 0.8 mm (wave number: 12500 cm-1) and goes up to 2.5 mm (wave number: 400 cm-1).

NIR spectroscopy is effective for determination of moisture, fat and protein content in the fish and other meats (Solid and Solberg, 1992; Osborne et al., 1993; Shimamoto et al., 2003) NIR analysis is used for the determination of cotton in polyester yarns (Blanco et al., 1994), and seed oil content and fatty acid composition in sunflower through the analysis of intact seeds, husked seeds, meal and oil (Vich et al, 1998).

In sugar industry the testing of sugarcane for pol, brix, sucrose content, invert and other common constituents have traditionally been done by a series of ICUMSA (International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis) and AOAC (Association of Official Agricultural Chemists) test methods. As many of these methods are time consuming, operator dependent and involve the use of hazardous reagents so Near-Infrared analysis has gained rapid acceptance as an alternative method. NIR spectroscopy can be used for determination of moisture, alcohol, oil, protein, fat, starch, amino acids, hydroxyl ion, film thickness, latex, total carbohydrates, nicotine, attributes like stability and internal damage etc. It can be successfully applied in the areas of baked foods, beverages, fruits, grains, dairy products, meats, flows, pharmaceuticals, paper, textiles, plastics, sugar, vegetable and petrochemicals etc. The various applications (Edye and Clarke, 1996) of NIR in sugar industry are analysis of raw sugar, refinery liquors, run-off syrups, remelts streams, molasses and low purity streams. Near Infrared analysis of shredded (Schaffler and Meyer, 1996) cane is being used as potential replacement for direct analysis of cane. NIR spectroscopy is used for determination of chemical composition (Brix, sugar content, purity) of molasses (Salgo, Nagy and Miko, 1998). NIR spectrophotometeric analysis is an alternative polarization method for raw sugar that uses NIR wavelengths (Player et al., 2000). As near infrared wavelengths specific to individual component can be identified, so it can be used for quantitative analysis of constituents of sugarcane. It is beneficial to opt this method because with it the results are produced in a matter of seconds, with little or no sample preparation required. It calibrates against approved primary methods. Moreover, the light in the near Infrared region is able to penetrate sugarcane juice, molasses and dark color solutions of massecuites etc. Thus, it can be used to predict the values of impurity content in cane juice, purity, pol and brix directly of a given sample without clarification using lead sub acetate. It is online (Fiedler et al, 2001) situation and permits rapid multicomponent analysis by spectrally scanning the sample. It is accurate with minimum of chemical expertise (Davies and Grant, 1986). It is simple (Bruijn, 1997) fast and versatile, with only dilution of liquid samples required, their easy disposal and uses filters.

The average sulphate (Mathur, 1986) content is 300 to 500 ppm of juice. Sometimes, it is much higher and is as high as 2000 ppm SO3 per litre of juice, depending upon the cultural practices and soil conditions. The sulphate content in mixed juice has a great influence on the operational results. If the sulphate content is over 800 ppm of juice, the scale formation constituting sulphate scale in the last vessel of the multiple effect evaporator is well marked. It is a very hard scale, insoluble in acids and difficult to remove even by mechanical scrappers. A good amount of sulphate in juice passed on from the evaporator gets precipitated in the crystallization process and fouls the heating tubes of the pans.

Treating the juice with superphosphate can reduce the intensity of the sulphate scaling. Online estimation of phosphate (Kaur and Aamarpali, 2004) and silica (Puri and Kaur, 2006) has already been done using NIR spectroscopy. So in continuation with my studies, NIR spectroscopic method for analysis of sulphate in cane juice is given in the present investigation, which is essential in factories before starting the process of clarification of cane juice.

 INSTRUMENTATION

  • Near Infrared Spectrophotometer of Elico (India): Spectral range 600-2500nm, bandwidth 10nm, accuracy +5nm, repeatability + 0.2nm and with advanced state of the art MS Windows® based software for data acquisition was used. With this instrument processing, storage, retrieval and interpretation of complex spectra can be done. This spectrophotometer helps in quantitative estimation of impurities in cane juice using regression analysis. The instrumental set up is shown in the Figure.1. It is PC based user friendly and menu driven. It is having high performance concave grating monochromator and two colour detector.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

The initial concentration of sulphate was found to be 410 ppm in cane juice. As the accuracy of NIR analysis is wholly dependent on the quality of calibration set so utmost care was taken in gathering, selecting and preparing samples to be used for calibration. While collecting samples it was taken into consideration that the samples should cover wide range of constituent’s concentration. The cane juice samples undergo chemical and biological (microbial) degradation with time. So the samples were analyzed on the same day without any delay. The instrument was away from direct sunlight and electromagnetic radiations. There was no radio frequency interference. The lab was well ventilated with ambient temperature maintained between 288-308 K and relative humidity 45 – 80 %. The samples were scanned in transmittance mode. While scanning there was no dust and corrosive gases. Scanning was done in the surroundings, which was free of vibrations and shocks. In this particular application NIR light is transmitted through the cane juice samples. The samples used for calibration were containing added sulphur in such a manner so as to cover it’s complete range in different local cane-juice varieties. In this spectroscopic analysis the samples are illuminated with light, which gives different wavelengths. The sample reacts with light producing a unique spectrum. This resultant transmittance spectrum gives the measure of the composition of sugar cane juice. In calibration process the sample specific transmittance data is compared with known wet chemical analysis of a selected set of sample so that if the sample transmission data matches with calibration sample set, it gives accurate results.

Calibration model was prepared for sulphate in cane juice using PLSR. For setting calibration model, thirty samples of this sulphate were scanned in transmittance mode. Calibration file was having a concentration range sulphate 300-500 ppm. While preparing calibration file for the sulphate the range was adjusted by dilution with water and by more addition of the sulphate. The dilution effect was nullified by having constant volume of solution in each sample.

Prediction file was prepared for sulphate in cane juice. For the preparation of prediction file twenty samples of cane juice having varying concentrations of sulphate were scanned and their prediction was done using respective calibration models. The prediction value is obtained from software, which gives required value by comparing with the calibration file chosen. Very carefully calibration file was chosen which was generated from same mode through the same range.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Two multivariate calibration procedures ie Partial Least Square Regression analysis (PLSR) and Stepwise Multivariate Linear Regression analysis (SMLR) were applied. Calibration model was set up for sulphate. Calibration models were set up using Partial Least Square Regression analysis. Standard error of calibration (SEC) and correlation coefficient were determined. The Standard Error of Prediction (SEP) and it’s correlation coefficient were also determined. SEC/SEP were determined using (Eq. 1)

SEC/SEP   =             Σ (Y-X)2   (N-1)                                    (.1)

Where Y is the result predicted from chemical analysis or the actual value, X is predicted from NIR measurements and N is the number of samples in the calibration/ prediction set. The actual values and NIR predicted values for sulphate in ppm are given in the table .1.

The summary statistics for the calibration of sulphate in cane juice is reported in the table .2. The table shows the standard error of calibration along with a multiple regression of the analyte. The SEC is found to be negligible for sulphate.

The summary statistics for prediction of sulphate in cane juice is reported in the table .3. The correlation is found to be almost 1 and SEP is also very less. Good agreement was found between the actual and the NIR predicted values. The error may vary to some extent depending on geographical location of samples used for prediction, difference in lab personnel or error from lab methods. Standard Error of Calibration (SEC) is found to be much less then the Standard Error of Prediction (SEP).

Stepwise Multivariate Linear Regression analysis has also been carried out to identify the wavelengths, which respond well to impurity under consideration. The order of correlation was determined. From the spectrum of each impurity, eight wavelengths were selected, out of these best-correlated wavelengths were selected. For selection of best-correlated wavelengths the regression was applied to the wavelength that correlated maximum and the standard deviation was determined. To this next wavelength was added in turn and retained only if it helped lower the standard deviation. The absorbances at specific wavelengths are correlated with concentrations of absorbing species. The quantity of the analyte (C) was determined. This can be expressed (Eq. 2) as follows.

         C    =    k0    +   k1 [A]x    +     ———–kn [A]x                             (2)

Where k0, k1——n are constants and [A]x are the absorbance values at different wavelengths. The data at these wavelengths has been reported in table .4. It also shows standard deviations of the analyte. The standard deviation for sulphate is found to be . The table .5 shows wavelengths identified for sulphate in cane juice. The plot of sulphate content (ppm) in cane juice vs. absorbance values of the selected wavelengths can help knowing concentration of sulphate in given cane juice sample very easily. In this study the results are confined to zero order derivative because at higher order derivative the value of SEP was found to be very high. So best prediction was obtained at zero order derivatives.

CONCLUSIONS:

In the calibration models set up by the Partial Least Square Regression analysis, SEC was found to be negligible which confirms the reliability of calibration model set up for sulphate in cane juice. The standard error of prediction was found to be very less with best correlation so NIR spectroscopic method can be successfully used for accurate prediction of the concentration of unknown samples of cane juice in few seconds. The best-correlated wavelengths were identified with Stepwise Multivariate Linear Regression analysis for sulphate. These wavelengths can give useful information about particular impurity in cane juice. From the results it was confirmed that the Partial Least Square analysis give much better results than Stepwise Multi Linear Regression analysis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

Corresponding Author Dr. Aamarpali Ratna Puri is very thankful to her mother (Ms.Sneh Lata) for her invaluable support and Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar. for providing necessary instruments and infrastructure for the present research.

 REFERENCES:

Blanco, M. Coello, J. Iturriaga, H. Maspoch, S. and Bertan, E., 1994. Analysis of cotton Polyester yarn by Near Infrared Spectroscopy. Analyst. 119: 1779-1782.

Bruijn, J, M., 1997. Development and application of automatic NIRS in factory laboratories. Technical Session, Brit Sug. 3B (iii), 11.

Davies, A. M. C., Grant, A. 1986. Review: Near Infrared analysis of food. Int. J. Food. Sci. Tech., 22: 191-207.

Edye, L. A., Clarke, M. A., 1996. Near Infrared Spectroscopy in sugar refining: Five years down the road. Proc. Annual. Meeting. Sug. Ind. Tech. 55, 1-8.

Fiedler, F. M., Edye, L. A., Watson, L. J., 2001. The application of discriminant analysis to online near infrared spectroscopy of prepared sugar cane. Proc. Aust. Sug. Cane Tech. 23, 317-321.

Kaur, S., Aamarpali., 2004. Quantitative estimation of phosphate in cane juice using near infrared Spectrophotometer. Indian Sugar, Vol (LIV), 513-517. Oct.

Mathur, R.L. (1986). “Handbook of cane sugar technology”. IInd Edition, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., India, 96.

Osborne, B. G., Fearn, T., Hindle, P. H., 1993. Practical spectroscopy with application in food and beverage analysis. UK, Longman Scientific & Technical.

Puri, A. R., Kaur, S., 2006. Estimation of silica in cane juice using near infrared spectroscopy, Cooperative sugar, Vol (37): No 6. 29-33. Feb.

Player, M. R., Rowe, G. S., Urquhart, R. M., McCunnie, K. A., McCarthy, D., 2000. Polarization of raw sugar without basic lead acetate: Int. Collaborative test. Proc. 22nd Conf. Aust. Soc. Sug. Tech., 385-392.

Salgo, A., Nagy, J., Miko, E., 1998. Application of near infrared spectroscopy in the sugar industry. J. NIR. Spectrosc. 6: 101-106.

Schaffler, K. J and Meyer, J. H., 1996. Near Infrared analysis of shredded cane: A potential replacement for direct analysis of cane, Proceeding of South African. Sugar. Technologists .Association. 70, 5, 131-139.

Shimamoto, J., Hiratsuka, S., Hasegawa, K., Sato, M., Kawano, S., 2003. Rapid non-destructive determination of fat content in frozen skipjack using a portable near infrared spectrophotometer, Fisheries Sci. 69. 856-60.

Solid, H, and Solberg, C., 1992. Salmon fat content estimation by Near-Infrared transmission spectroscopy. J Food Sci. 57: 792-93.

Vich, B.P., Velaso, L, Martinez, J. M. F., 1998. Determination of seed oil content and fatty acid composition in sunflower through the analysis of intact seed, husked seed meal and oil by Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 75 (5) 547-555.

TABLES:

Table .1 Showing actual values and values predicted from the NIR spectroscopy of sulphate (ppm) in cane juice. 

S.No Actual values

(ppm)

 Predicted values

(ppm)
.1 296.0 296.5
.2 350.0 350.3
.3 448.5 448.0
.4 498.0 499.0
.5 425.0 425.5
.6 380.5 381.0
.7 320.0 320.5
.8 360.5 360.0
.9 308.5 308.0
.10 395.5 395.0
.11 444.0 444.5
.12 458.0 458.5
.13 470.5 471.0
.14 452.0 452.5
.15 311.0 311.5
.16 334.0 334.5
.17 447.5 447.0
.18 386.0 385.5
.19 488.5 489.0
.20 408.0 407.5

 

Table .2 Summary statistics for the PLS calibration of sulphate (individually) from 30 samples of cane juice.

S.No Analyte

in cane juice

 Range of values

(ppm)

     Calibration

SEC           MR
1. Sulphate  300-500 0.128        0.999

Where: SEC = Standard Error of Calibration, MR =Multiple Regression coefficient

Table .3 Summary statistics for the prediction of sulphate (individually) from 20 samples of cane juice.

S.No Analyte

in cane juice

 SEP   R
1. Sulphate 0.522 0.999

Where: SEP = Standard Error of Prediction, R = correlation coefficient

Table .4 Regression coefficients and Standard Deviation (s) data for sulphate using Stepwise Multivariate Linear Regression (SMLR) analysis.

S.No Analyte k0 k1 k2 k3 s
1. sulphate 583.627 -400.767 -78.358 -18.124 6.47

Table .5 Wavelengths identified from Stepwise Multivariate Linear Regression analysis that respond well to impurity under consideration.

Analyte   Wavelengths (nm)    
sulphate   2025 900 1450

World’s oldest living specimen

Posted on by Aamarpali

 By: Aamarpali Puri

What is life? From where it originated? It is something mysterious. Million and million years ago life came into existence.  There are certain viewpoints in this respect

  • Life was created on earth by diving power. It has all religious reasons and no experimental evidence.
  • Abiogenesis (life from non life): Spontaneous generation of living from non living as a result of certain chemical and physical changes under special conditions.
  • Modern View: Alexander Ivanovich Oparin (1894): He speculated that under the influence of UV radiations and violent electric discharge. Gases in earth atmosphere (Ammonia, methane, water vapours, hydrogen etc) reacted with each other in a coordinate manner, leading to the synthesis of protein, nucleic acids, fats, sugars and other essential compounds and acquired the properties of life. Lioyd Miller (1953), American chemist conducted experiments in the laboratory which strongly supported Oparin’s hypothesis. The life which is symbolised by the protoplasm came onto existence and give rise to more complex forms of living creatures. Protoplasm cannot be created in vitro and it doesn’t change with time both in plants and animals.

All living objects contain protoplasm which is basis of life. All living organism follow a definite life cycle birth, growth, reproduction, aging and death. There are certain plants which has unimaginable long life.

SOME OF THE WORLD’S OLDEST LIVING TREES ARE:

Big Baobab: The estimated the age of the Big Baobab (the Sunland Baobab) is around 6 000 years. By nature the Baobab tree has been planted upside down. When winter comes, the Baobab resembles a mass of roots pointing towards the sky instead of being underground. Even the flowers bloom at night. The Baobab has a special role in Africa.

Methuselah: Age over 5,000 years; this is ancient Bristlecone pine oldest known organism on earth. It is located in White Mountains of the California, in Inyo National Forest but it’s actual location is kept secret to protect it.

Mammoth Tree: The giant sequoia or mammoth tree is not as tall as the redwood, nor as wide as an baobab, does still Sequoiadendron giganteum represent the largest (most massive) plant on the planet. Some individuals are 3,500 years old, yet they are not the oldest trees on Earth – ‘title’ that belong to two pine species from the mountains of southwestern USA: Great Basin Bristlecone Pine (Pinus longaeva) (photo) and Rocky Mountains Bristlecone Pine (Pinus arista): an individual of Pinus longaeva was found to have 4,900 years!.

Cypress tree of Iran: The estimated age is 4,000 years. It is likely to be the oldest living thing in Asia.

Alerce: A towering tree native to Andes mountains. Oldest lioving speciemen is 3,640 years old.

 The Senator: This tree located in Florida, is the largest bals cypress tree in US. Estimated age around 3,500 years. The tree got its name from Sen M.O Overstreet, who donated the tree and surrounding land in 1927. Senator was used as a landmark for the Indians and other native tribes. It has reported to endure many hurricans, including one in 1925 which reduce its height by 40 feet. It is reported that 118 foot, 3500 year old tree was burned to the ground in January 2012.

Raintree: Great Basin Bristlecone Pine located near Kyle Canyon in the Spring Mountain range in Southern Nevada, USA. Estimated 3000 years old but never cored.

 Patriarca da Floresta: This tree, an example of the species Cariniana legalis named Patriarca da Floresta in Brazil, is estimated to be about 3,000 years old, making it the oldest non-conifer in Brazil.

Olive Tree of Vouves:  This ancient olive tree is located on the Greek island of Crete and is one of seven olive trees in the Mediterranean believed to be at least 2,000 to 3,000 years old. It still produces olives, and they are highly prized.

Jōmon Sugi: Jōmon Sugi, located in Yakushima, Japan, is the oldest and largest cryptomeria tree on the island, and is one of many reasons why the island was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The tree dates to at least 2,000 years old.

Chestnut Tree of One Hundred Horses: This tree, located on Mount Etna in Sicily, is the largest and oldest known chestnut tree in the world. Believed to be between 2,000 and 4,000 years old. It is listed by Guinness World Records as having the “greatest tree girth ever,” at 190 feet in circumference.

General Sherman: Believed to be around 2,500 years old, General Sherman is the mightiest giant sequoia still standing. It weighs over 6000 tons. The volume of its trunk alone makes it the largest non-clonal tree by volume in the world, even though its largest branch broke off in 2006. Sherman can be found in Sequoia National Park in California, where five of the 10 largest trees in the world exist.

Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi: A sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which the Buddha became enlightened. It was planted in 288 BC and is the oldest living human-planted tree in the world with a known planting date

A Clonal colony can survive much longer than an individual tree. Pando in the Fish lake national forest of Utah is considered oldest and largest organism estimated to be around 80, 000 years old. Clonal Trees species Huon Pine: located in Mount Read, Tasmani, Australia it is one of the several genetically identical males that have reproduced vegetatively. Although single trees in this stand may be around 3 to 4 thousand years old, the stand itself as a single organism has existed for 10,000 years.

Apart from this the Juniperus, taxus and taxodium 2-3,000 years; Peepul (Ficus religiosa -2-3,000 years;  Himalayan cedar or deodar 1,000 years; Euclaptus -300 years etc.

Bibliography:

Books:

Dutta, T C. & Dutta, A C (2000). A class book of Botany, 7th edition, Oxford University Press.

Websites:

http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/wilderness-resources/photos/the-worlds-10-oldest-living-trees [Accessed on 12 July 2015].

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_trees [Accessed on 10 October 2015].

http://www.bigbaobab.co.za/baobab_facts

http://news.softpedia.com/news/5-Amazing-Things-About-the-World-039-s-Tallest-and-Largest-Trees-78308.shtml

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequoiadendron_giganteum